Multi-domain operations: how the information age is reshaping the battlefield

For decades, armed conflicts followed a clear division of responsibilities among land, naval, and air forces. When these three branches worked together, it was known as “joint operations.” Cooperation was largely seen as the sum of each branch’s individual contributions. But the 21st century has fundamentally changed that equation. The emergence of hyperconnected digital sensors, the growing importance of space-based systems, the constant threat of cyberattacks, and the rapid spread of drones have made one thing clear: no single branch can ensure security on its own. The traditional model, in which each branch played its part under the coordination of a joint command, is no longer fit for purpose.

The past decade has seen the advent of new, interconnected operational environments—including space, cyberspace, the electromagnetic spectrum, and the information domain—that operate differently from traditional domains of warfare. You can’t occupy them with troops or mark out their boundaries on a map. Yet they can be used to bring a country to a standstill, spread disinformation among its population, or blind its radar systems without firing a single shot. The multi-domain approach isn’t simply about expanding the battlefield into new domains. It’s about connecting the dots: understanding how these domains interact and influence one another, and coordinating them as parts of a single, interconnected system.

This is where multi-domain operations (MDO) come into play. The concept goes far beyond exchanging information through standardized protocols. It involves integrating and coordinating actions across the five internationally recognized domains of warfare—land, sea, air, space, and cyberspace—in real time, simultaneously producing effects in and from any of these domains.

Alongside these five physical and digital domains are two critical dimensions that cut across them all: the electromagnetic spectrum and the cognitive and information environment. Under Spanish military doctrine, the latter is recognized as a new operational and strategic domain focused on how people perceive the truth, how commanders make decisions, and how disinformation can be countered.

To illustrate the impact of multi-domain operations, military doctrine draws on the shift from a linear kill chain to an interconnected network known as a kill web. In a traditional kill chain, a sensor detects a target and sends the information to a command center, which then directs a specific weapon system to neutralize it. In a kill web, by contrast, any available sensor—whether a satellite in space, a drone in the air, or a soldier on the ground—can feed information in real time to whichever unit or system is best positioned to respond. The ultimate goal is to accelerate the observe, orient, decide, and act (OODA) loop. The faster a military force can complete this decision-making cycle relative to its adversary, the better its chances of seizing the strategic initiative.

A new paradigm for the European Union and NATO

There’s no one-size-fits-all approach to multi-domain operations. Each major power has adapted the concept to its own military doctrine, strategic priorities, and technological capabilities.

The United States has spearheaded the development of Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2), an operational concept designed to connect every sensor across the U.S. military with any unit or weapon system, anywhere in the world. Its primary aim is to overcome what are known as anti-access/area denial (A2/AD) defences: sophisticated defensive bubbles made up of long-range missiles and radar systems that adversaries use to restrict allied forces’ access to conflict zones and limit their freedom of action once there.

NATO formally adopted its multi-domain operations concept in May 2023. The European and allied approach goes beyond military power alone, emphasizing the coordination of operations across all five domains with nonmilitary efforts by civilian organizations and diplomatic and economic actors. The goal is to deter hybrid threats and protect critical infrastructure.

Spain’s approach: from network-centric warfare to data-centric operations

Spain, meanwhile, is developing its own approach to multi-domain operations, tailored to the structure and capabilities of its armed forces and aligned with its NATO and European Union commitments. Spanish military doctrine emphasizes mission command, giving subordinate units greater freedom to take the initiative and seize operational opportunities as they arise, while remaining within the commander’s intent and established directives. At the same time, it places particular emphasis on interoperability with NATO and the European Union and on integrating capabilities across the different domains.

Digital transformation is a key enabler of this approach. Spain is moving toward an increasingly data-centric command and control (C2) model, supported by secure communications networks, artificial intelligence (AI), communications and information systems (CIS), and a combat cloud. Together, these technologies enable information to be shared and processed across different levels of command and operational domains. Another distinctive feature of Spain’s approach is its recognition of the cognitive domain in military doctrine, encompassing perceptions, information, and their influence on decision-making.

Technological challenges

By its very nature, a multi-domain approach dramatically increases the number of sensors, information sources, and types of data that must be collected, processed, and made available to decision-makers. And all of this needs to happen much faster than ever before.

Putting multi-domain operations into practice poses major technical, doctrinal, and organizational difficulties. Three technological challenges stand out:

• Today’s battlefields are filled with drones, radars, and sensors of all kinds, forming what is known as the Internet of Military Things (IoMT). Together, they generate vast amounts of data. If all this data reached decision-makers without first being processed, the sheer volume could overwhelm them and paralyze decision-making. Artificial intelligence and big data analytics are therefore essential for analyzing, filtering, and classifying data and reports in real time, ensuring that commanders receive only the critical information they need, when and where they need it, and in a format they can act on.
• In high-intensity combat, satellite signals and communications networks are prime targets for electronic jamming. Armed forces must be able to make decisions even when their links to command posts are disrupted. This is where the combat cloud comes in, allowing systems onboard deployed vehicles and equipment used by units in the field to process data locally without relying on remote systems or network connectivity.
• In multinational operations, participating countries do not always have access to the same information or operate at the same security classification levels. Sharing operational intelligence in real time without compromising security requires technologies such as Cross-Domain Solutions and Zero Trust architectures. Together, these enable secure information exchange between networks across different domains while ensuring that only authorized personnel can access the information they need for their missions.

Traditionally, military decision-making has been centralized at the highest levels of command, with units in the field responsible for carrying out orders. Multi-domain operations are pushing in the opposite direction, toward more distributed command structures that give tactical units greater autonomy to make decisions previously reserved for senior commanders. These units, after all, are the ones in direct, almost instantaneous contact with emerging threats. However, this approach can only work with clear directives, reliable connectivity among all those involved, and a secure flow of information protected against electronic interference and cyberattacks.

Beyond the battlefield

Although multi-domain operations are a military concept, some of the capabilities they rely on are also relevant to protecting civilian infrastructure, power grids, telecommunications systems, satellite navigation systems, and supply chains. Today’s hybrid threats rarely stop at the battlefield. They combine disinformation on social media, cyber intrusions into civilian systems and, as a last resort, the use of military force. Understanding multi-domain operations therefore helps explain why national security is no longer just about military capabilities. It also depends on the technological, industrial, and social resilience needed to withstand threats of all kinds.

This approach is particularly relevant to the work of organizations such as Spain’s Military Emergency Unit and National Security Department.

In a crisis, the Military Emergency Unit must respond quickly and coordinate its efforts when emergencies affect critical infrastructure, including power grids, telecommunications networks, and essential supplies. Meanwhile, the National Security Department needs a comprehensive picture of threats ranging from natural disasters and technological incidents to hybrid threats, enabling it to support decision-making at the highest levels. Both organizations face the same fundamental challenge as multi-domain operations: bringing together data from multiple sources and delivering the right information to decision-makers securely and in time to act. Platforms such as PI-SSN, discussed later in this article, are designed to meet this need.

GMV: technology and innovation driving multi-domain operations

Meeting these challenges calls for a strong European technology industry, which plays a vital role in ensuring the strategic autonomy and interoperability of allied forces. GMV has proven itself an international leader in developing command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR) solutions for NATO, the European Defence Agency (EDA), the European External Action Service (EEAS), and defence ministries in European and other NATO member countries.

GMV’s contribution to the multi-domain ecosystem rests on three key technological pillars:

• C4ISR systems: GMV is a leading provider of command and control (C2) and joint intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (JISR) systems for the Spanish Ministry of Defence, NATO, and international organizations. The company develops advanced solutions for planning, directing, and coordinating military operations, including Talos, a fire support command and control system; SISCAP, designed for dismounted soldiers; and SCE, for amphibious operations. In the JISR field, GMV has developed the SAPIIEM suite, which covers the entire intelligence cycle, from collection planning to information exploitation and dissemination. Its CSD-SIERRA solution, based on NATO Standardization Agreement (STANAG) 4559, is deployed in NATO environments and nine allied countries. These capabilities are complemented by multi-domain command and control solutions, interoperability technologies, and artificial intelligence tools that enhance situational awareness and speed up operational decision-making.
  
• Unmanned platform management: GMV’s IRIS solution integrates unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs), and unmanned surface vehicles (USVs), along with their sensors, into command and control networks. It enables images, video, and other sensor data to be received, standardized, and distributed in accordance with NATO standards, while ARGUS provides command and control capabilities for coordinating swarms of unmanned systems.
  
• Digitalizing crisis management: GMV leads the development of PI-SSN, a data intelligence platform for Spain’s National Security Department, and deploys AI-powered large language models (LLMs) in completely isolated (air-gapped) environments to strengthen the security of classified data. Working with its subsidiary Autek, GMV also deploys PSTcsd security gateways, which automatically filter sensitive information as it moves between networks with different security classification levels.

Conclusions

Multi-domain operations are far more than a theoretical concept. They represent a critical organizational and technological response to the need to strengthen deterrence and preserve peace in the turbulent international landscape of the 21st century. The ability to integrate land, sea, air, space, and cyberspace into a single, seamlessly connected ecosystem will be crucial to maintaining the operational superiority of allied nations.

The success of this transformation will depend on three fundamental principles: establishing common communications standards across allied nations, strengthening European industrial and technological sovereignty to secure supply chains, and keeping people at the heart of strategic decision-making.

As the experience of companies like GMV demonstrates, European technology is ready to bridge the gap between military doctrine and operational reality. By combining artificial intelligence, advanced command and control, and cyber defence capabilities, Europe and NATO are strengthening their ability to protect their citizens and respond swiftly to the challenges of an interconnected world.